In transcribing the following paragraphs from the rough text in the Internet Archive online version, I have changed the formatting for easier reading, added images that appear in the original and also ones that come from other sources and I have omitted cross references to comparative material, such as examples from ancient Greece. — George P. Landow]
1. Plans
Ajunta. Façade of Rock-cut cave. From Banister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method (5th ed), plate 268 (p. 615). Click on image to enlarge it.
Buddhist. — The remains of Buddhist Chaityas (Temples) are all hewn out of the rock, and therefore have only one external façade. In plan they resemble Christian Cathedrals in having three aisles formed by two rows of piers; the sanctuary, around which the aisle is carried, is semi-circular.
The viharas (or monasteries) are also rock-cut. They consist generally of a central hall surrounded on three sides by cells for the priests. In later and larger examples, columns are introduced in the central space to support the rock overhead. In the most important examples the sanctuary is placed in a special apartment, and provided with a screen of columns as at Nassick.
Jaina. — Temples owe much of their attractiveness to their environment, by being picturesquely grouped on mountain tops or in wooded valleys. In plan they consist of a square cell containing the image of the Jaina, roofed with a high curvilinear pyramidal Tower called a "Sikra." In front was a pillared portico, crowned by a pointed dome usually supported on eight pillars forming points of an octagon, and brought to a square by inserting four angle columns (No. 266c). The columns are extended so as to make the whole structure cruciform on plan, which is apparent externally.
The planning of the dome on the octagonal base causes the width of the central nave to the aisles to be in the proportion of 10 to 7. A somewhat similar treatment has been adopted in the successful interior of S. Stephen, Walbrook.
In important examples, the temple is placed in a great open court, round which cells are planned. At Girnar there are seventy of such cells, each containing a cross-legged statute of the Jina, to whom the Temple is dedicated.
Hindu (or Brahman). — The Hindu Temples are similar in plan to the Jaina temples, with local differences — for instance, Dravidian Temples have, in addition, the characteristic choultries, or halls of 1,000 columns, and are generally surrounded by a wall, inclosing lakes or tanks of water for priestly purposes, while Chalukyan Temples are usually star-shaped on plan.
Walls
These were constructed principally of the granite, stone or marble with which the country abounds, the massive blocks being sometimes laid without mortar. Plain walling seems to have been avoided, and sculpture is employed in a bewildering and confusing way. The characteristic Eastern treatment of decorating with sculptures the whole surface of the walls is employed in all three styles.
In the Dravidian style the gopuras or gate pyramids resemble, in their massiveness only, the pylons of the Egyptian Temples
Openings
Buddhist. — In rock-cut examples, the horseshoe form occurs on the façade (No. 268), forming, as it were, one great eye, and being the only opening for light. Within this arch was usually an open decorated framework of wood, probably used as a screen to the glaring Eastern sun ; thus the subdued light was thrown on the shrine from behind the spectator, producing a favourable effect of light and shade on the close-set columns of the interior (No. 267).
Jaina. — Openings are normally square-headed. Domes, when employed, were formed of horizontal courses, as in early Greek architecture. Such a system was necessary in the case of domes supported on slender columns, which could sustain no outward thrust. In their pillared porches, horizontal stone architraves rested on the bracket capitals, and a characteristic Eastern feeling was produced by the stone struts supporting them (No. 270), features which were evidently derived from a timber form. An extension of the bracket capital is sometimes applied to walls, lintels being supported at intervals by detached brackets built out in horizontal courses. The struts, already mentioned, were occasionally filled in with ornament, thus forming a triangular-headed opening (No. 271).
Hindu. — Flat-headed openings are the usual type, but variations are caused in roofs by the use of bracketing shafts supporting purlins of stone, on which inner brackets were placed, thus gradually reducing the span, till stone slabs could roof the apartment, as at the Dravidian temple at Chillambaram.
The Chalukyan buildings have pierced window slabs, as at Baillur and Hullabid (No. 274). Such are formed in star-shaped patterns ornamented with foliaged bands or with mythological subjects. These slabs, filling in the whole opening, are a great contrast to other styles, being somewhat similar, however, to Byzantine and Saracenic buildings.
Roofs
Buddhist. — In the early rock-cut chaityas. semi-circular roofs are excavated in the rock and ornamented with wooden ribs or stone imitations of them (Nos. 267 and 268).
Jaina. — The sikra, or stone roof, which crowned the idol-cell had a high curved outline crowned with a melon ornament and finial (No. 271). Such a curved outline, Mr. Fergusson suggests, may have been produced by following the outline of an internal pointed dome, formed with slabs of stone in horizontal courses. Jaina porches are crowned with (i) roofs formed of flat slabs of stone, or (2) pointed domes formed in horizontal courses.
The flat slab roofs were evolved from the simple square slab of stone resting on architraves supported on four columns. Larger spaces were roofed by using a succession of triangular slabs as a base for the original square slab to rest on (No. 266c). Still larger spaces were roofed by the insertion of two extra columns on each face to support the long architrave, and making twelve columns in all to each compartment, the intermediate columns forming an octagon on plan.
The pointed Jaina dome seldom exceeds 30 feet in diameter. It is invariably formed in horizontal courses (compare the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae). Such domes, if of any size, are of necessity pointed or conical in section (No. 266 D, e), so that a single stone can crown the top. When placed on the octagonal plan as indicated above, the triangular portions (or pendentives from the octagon to the circle) are formed by a circular stone cornice supported at the re-entering angles by projections from the capitals (No. 270). The bearing of the architrave was apparently lessened by the use of bracket capitals and struts, although it is doubtful if these have any constructive value (Nos. 266 b and 270).
The decoration of such domes followed the horizontal lines of the construction, the ornament being arranged in concentric rings, the central or top stone forming a pendant.
Hindu. — Dravidian examples have the roof covering the vimana of the storied pyramidal type (No. 276), normally carried to a considerable height and carved with representations of itself along each well-defined story.
Chalukyan examples have the towers either of the storied Dravidian type, following the curvilinear outline of the Northern Hindu examples, or form a straight-sided cone arranged in steps.
Columns
Indian columns are most characteristic features, and are unlike those in any other style. No systems of simple well-known types existed, as in Greece or Rome. The origin of their form is unknown, but it seems certain that they come of a wooden prototype. The shaft is as much ornamented as the capital and base (No. 266). The bracket capital (No. 266) is a characteristic Indian feature taking a variety of forms.
Buddhist columns are often octagonal on plan (No. 267). In the great rock-cut Chaityas at Karli, Bedsa and elsewhere, they are stumpy, closely set together, thus screening the wall behind, which, of course, had no openings. They thus gave the necessary light and shade to the interior, as did the columns to the exterior of a windowless Greek temple. The numerous forms of capitals, resembling in certain instances the Assyrian and Persepolitan examples, are bewildering. Sculptured lions, horses, or elephants, supporting men, women, and the "chakra" or Buddhist wheel occur, as at Bedsa. In others, as at Karli, torus or Dutch cheese- like mouldings ornamented with palm leaves occur under a capital of a course Roman-Doric type (No. 269).
In North-west India, in the Gandhara district, Greek or Byzantine influence produced capitals with delicate acanthus- leaf carvings.
Jaina. — Columns are a special feature and exhibit great variety of design. The capitals are of the " bracket " type, probably derived from a timber original. Sometimes, as at Mount Abu (No. 270), they are superimposed, the upper ones supporting an architrave which is upheld in the centre by stone struts resting on the lower capital.
Hindu. — In the Dravidian choultries, there was great scope for the inventiveness of the Hindu craftsman. The capitals are of the bracket type, and in some instances not more than two columns in a building are alike. Some, as at Madura, have life-sized figures of saints, or Yalis (weird lion-like monsters) attached to them (No. 266c), forming a contrast to Greek caryatides. In other cases, a compound pier of a sturdy and light column is employed (No. 26l).
Mouldings
Normally these are of a bulbous swelling outline, those to the columns often lacking refinement. A form made by overlapping rectangular slabs is frequently used in the bases and capitals of columns and dagobas. In other instances, at at Bedsa, a semi-circular open-work inoulding, recalling basket-work, is employed. The plain torus is used, and the double-convex shape into which the cross pieces of the "rails" are cut, are used as deep horizontal bands of ornaments, taking the place of mouldings proper (No. 266f).
Ornament
This is principally confined to sculpture carried out with a profuseness unknown in other styles. Executed principally in hard stone, and having little plain wall surface to frame it, it forms a monument of patient labour, perhaps unequalled.
The sculpture is so bound up with the peoples' religion and mythology, of which indeed it forms the mirror, that the two cannot be considered separately. In Jaina architecture, each of the twenty-four Jinas had a distinctive sign which was utilised by the sculptors. The trident, shield, and chakra (or wheel), the " rail " ornament (copied from the Sanchi tope) and imitations of window fronts and fa9£ades are also repeated on the fronts of the early chaityas, as at Bedsa, Nassick, and elsewhere.
A most characteristic feature was the representation on a façade or tower of numerous small carved representations of itself. This method was also used in Assyria, and the remains often enable a fanciful restoration to be made.
Painted decorations or frescoes were often employed, as at Ajunta, the walls of the cave being left plain for the purpose. The use of sculptured figures as a means of decoration was a later phase.
The evolution of the sculptured umbrellas surmounting the Dagoba (or shrine) is interesting as being the prototype of the nine-storied pagodas of China. On the Gateways at Sanchi (a plaster copy is at the Indian Museum, South Kensington) are represented legendary events from the life and religion of Buddha, the worship of trees and relics, and warlike scenes (No. 266 a). The three, five, or seven-headed Naga or serpent is frequently used. Besides the animals already mentioned, others such as horses, lions, "hansas" (sacred geese), form favourite subjects with Buddhist sculptors, and are a striking contrast to the motifs of Mahometan sculpture.
Note. — In further India (or Indo-China), as in Burma, Siam, Java, and Cambodia, are temples, monasteries and pagodas, many of which are of great size and importance, but of which space does not admit of more than passing reference.
Bibliography
Fletcher, Banister, and Banister F. Fletcher. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method for the Student, Craftsman, and Amateur. 5th ed. London: B. T. Batsford, 1905.
Last modified 12 December 2018